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And at, 18th–19th-century painting The Mahābhārata (:,:;: महाभारतम्, Mahābhāratam, pronounced ) is one of the two major of, the other being the. The title may be translated as 'the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty'. The Mahābhārata is an epic legendary narrative of the and the fates of the and the princes. It also contains and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four 'goals of life' or (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the Mahābhārata are the, the story of, an abbreviated version of the Rāmāyaṇa, and the story of, often considered as works in their own right.
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Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, though the origins of the epic probably fall between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE. The text probably reached its final form by the early (c.
4th century CE). According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata.
The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as 'the longest poem ever written'. Its longest version consists of over 100,000 or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. At about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the and the combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of world civilization to that of the, the works of, the works of, or the. Within the Indian tradition it is sometimes called the. Modern depiction of Vyasa narrating the Mahābhārata to at the temple, Karnataka. The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage, who is also a major character in the epic.
Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa (history). He also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times. The first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was who wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation. The epic employs the structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works.
It is first recited at by the sage, a disciple of Vyāsa, to the King who is the great-grandson of the prince. The story is then recited again by a professional storyteller named, many years later, to an assemblage of sages performing the 12-year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in the. The snake sacrifice of Janamejaya The Ādi-parva includes the snake sacrifice ( sarpasattra) of, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why in spite of this, there are still snakes in existence. This sarpasattra material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of the Mahābhārata by 'thematic attraction' (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection to literature. The (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of a sarpasattra among whom the names Dhṛtarāṣtra and Janamejaya, two main characters of the Mahābhārata's sarpasattra, as well as Takṣaka, the name of a snake in the Mahābhārata, occur. The, a late Vedic period poem considered to be among the 'earliest traces of epic poetry in India,' is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of that is included in the Āstīka Parva, within the Ādi Parva of the Mahābhārata.
Historical references. Further information: The historicity of the is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to of the 10th century BCE.
The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age India, where the kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE. A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the Jaya, the foundation on which the Mahābhārata corpus was built, with a climactic battle eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event. Presents genealogical lists associated with the Mahābhārata narrative. The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1015 (or 1050) years between the birth of (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession of (400-329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the Bharata battle. However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies. Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna ('s great-grandson).
Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle. Map of some (PGW) sites.
Used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from (PGW) sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic. Confirm this and also gives 950 BCE for the Bharata battle. Attempts to date the events using methods of have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid-2nd millennium BCE. The late 4th-millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the Kaliyuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by (6th century). Aryabhata's date of 18 February 3102 BCE for Mahābhārata war has become widespread in Indian tradition. Some sources mark this as the disappearance of from earth.
The of, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3735 years have elapsed since the Bharata battle, putting the date of Mahābhārata war at 3137 BCE. Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by, (author of the ) and (author of the ), place the Bharata war 653 years after the Kaliyuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE. Ganesha writing the Mahabharata The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of, the kingdom ruled by the clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the and the. Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than, the eldest Pandava. Both Duryodhana and Yudhishthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne. The struggle culminates in the, in which the are ultimately victorious.
The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse. The Mahābhārata itself ends with the death of, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of, the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue. The older generations. Shantanu woos Satyavati, the fisherwoman. King Janamejaya's ancestor, the king of, has a short-lived marriage with the goddess and has a son, Devavrata (later to be called, a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent.
Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, he sees, the daughter of the chief of fisherman, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honouring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise. Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati,. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies.
Vichitravirya, the younger son, rules. Meanwhile, the King of arranges a for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapur. In order to arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya. The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara.
Bhishma lets her leave to marry king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. Later she is reborn to King as (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of, in the battle of Kurukshetra. The Pandava and Kaurava princes. With her five husbands - the. The central figure is; the two on the bottom are.
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And, the twins, are standing. Painting by, c. When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son to the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her son is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced' ). Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again.
However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest characters in the Mahabharata.
He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra. When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to. Dhritarashtra marries, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels.
Her brother is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However the arrow hits the sage, who curses him that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die.
Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness. Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke any god using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to ask the god of justice, the god of the wind, and the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three sons, and, through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queen, who bears the twins and through the twins. However, Pandu and Madri indulge in sex, and Pandu dies.
Madri out of remorse. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the brothers. Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons through, all born after the birth of Yudhishthira. These are the brothers, the eldest being, and the second. Other Kaurava brothers were and Sukarna.
The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the war. Lakshagraha (the house of lac) After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur. Yudhishthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his courtiers.
Dhritarashtra wanted his own son Duryodhana to become king and lets his ambition get in the way of preserving justice. Shakuni, Duryodhana and Dusasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect Purochana to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee.
He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, with the intention of setting it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They are able to escape to safety and go into hiding. During this time Bhima marries a rakshashi and has a son Ghatotkachh. Back in Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead. Marriage to Draupadi. Piercing the eye of the fish as depicted in built by Whilst they were in hiding the Pandavas learn of a which is taking place for the hand of the princess.
The Pandavas disguised as Brahmins come to witness the event. Meanwhile Krishna who has already befriended Draupadi, tells her to look out for Arjuna (though now believed to be dead). The task was to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which was the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in oil below, a feat only Karna, Arjuna and Krishna himself could perform. After all the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow Karna proceeds to the attempt but is interrupted by Draupadi refusing to marry a sut putra.
After this the swayamvara is opened to the brahmins leading Arjuna to win the contest and marry Draupadi. The Pandavas return home and inform their meditating mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever Arjuna has won amongst themselves. Thus, Draupadi ends up being the.
Indraprastha After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining and demanding only a wild forest inhabited by Takshaka, the king of snakes and his family. Through hard work the Pandavas are able to build a new glorious capital for the territory at. Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister,.
Yudhisthra wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the rājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognised as pre-eminent among kings.
The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by the. They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond, and assumes it is not water and falls in., the twins and the servants laugh at him. In popular adaptations, this insult is wrongly attributed to Draupadi, even though in the Sanskrit epic, it was the Pandavas (except Yudhisthira) who had insulted Duryodhana.
Enraged by the insult, and jealous at seeing the wealth of the Pandavas, Duryodhana decides to host a dice-game at Shakuni's suggestion. The dice game. Draupadi humiliated Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice.
In the dice game, Yudhishthira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. Yudhishthira then gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude.
The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but Draupadi's disrobe is prevented by Krishna, who miraculously make her dress endless, therefore it couldn't be removed. Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year, they must remain hidden. If they are discovered by the Kauravas in the 13th year of their exile, then they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.
Exile and return The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of, and they are discovered just after the end of the year. At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha with Krishna as their emissary. However, this negotiation fails, because Duryodhana objected that they were discovered in the 13th year of their exile and the return of their kingdom was not agreed. Then the Pandavas fought the Kauravas, claiming their rights over Indraprastha. The battle at Kurukshetra.
A scene from the Mahābhārata war,: A black stone relief depicting a number of men wearing a crown and a dhoti, fighting with spears, swords and bows. A chariot with half the horse out of the frame is seen in the middle.
The two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at for a war. The kingdoms of, Kasi, and the of and some other clans like the were allied with the. The allies of the included the kings of Pragjyotisha, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including Sindhus, and Sivis), Mahishmati, in Madhyadesa, and many others.
Before war being declared, had expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict and leaves to go on; thus he does not take part in the battle itself. Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, as charioteer for Arjuna. Before the battle, Arjuna noticing that the opposing army includes his own kith and kin, including his great grandfather and his teacher, has grave doubts about the fight and falls into despair.At this time,Krishna reminds him of duty as a to fight for his just cause in the famous section of the epic. Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonourable tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, and Krishna survive.
The end of the Pandavas. Gandhari, blindfolded, supporting Dhrtarashtra and following Kunti when Dhrtarashtra became old and infirm and retired to the forest. A miniature painting from a 16th-century manuscript of part of the Razmnama, a translation of the Mahabharata After 'seeing' the carnage, who had lost all her sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later. The Pandavas, who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to the and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them.
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One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishthira gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, and Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhishthira, who had tried everything to prevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja), and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once.
Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices. Arjuna's grandson rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice ( ) in order to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him. The reunion The Mahābhārata mentions that Karna, the Pandavas, Draupadi and Dhritarashtra's sons eventually ascended to and 'attained the state of the ' and banded together — 'serene and free from anger.' Themes Just war The Mahābhārata offers one of the first instances of theorizing about, ', illustrating many of the standards that would be debated later across the world. In the story, one of five brothers asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified.
A long discussion ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria like proportionality (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress), just means (no poisoned or barbed arrows), just cause (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded. Versions, translations, and derivative works Critical Edition Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, followed by the Harivamsha in another two volumes and six index volumes.
This is the text that is usually used in current Mahābhārata studies for reference. This work is sometimes called the 'Pune' or 'Poona' edition of the Mahabharata. Regional versions Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added.
These include the street theatre, and, the plays of which use themes from the Tamil language versions of Mahabharata, focusing on Draupadi. The and in an act of the Javanese performance Outside the Indian subcontinent, in, a version was developed in ancient as in the 11th century under the patronage of King (990–1016) and later it spread to the neighboring island of, which remains a Hindu majority island today. It has become the fertile source for Javanese literature, dance drama , and shadow puppet performances. This Javanese version of the Mahābhārata differs slightly from the original Indian version.
For example, is only wed to, not to all the Pandava brothers; this might demonstrate ancient Javanese opposition to. The author later added some female characters to be wed to the Pandavas, for example, Arjuna is described as having many wives and consorts next to. Another difference is that does not change her sex and remains a woman, to be wed to, and takes the role of a warrior princess during the war.
Another twist is that is described as antagonistic character who hates the Pandavas: her hate is out of jealousy because during Gandhari's, she was in love with Pandu but was later wed to his blind elder brother instead, whom she did not love, so she blindfolded herself as protest. Another notable difference is the inclusion of the, the clown servants of the main characters in the storyline. These characters include, Gareng and Bagong, who are much-loved by Indonesian audiences. There are also some spin-off episodes developed in ancient Java, such as composed in 11th century.
A version of the Mahabharata, of which eight of the eighteen parvas survive, is found on the Indonesian island of. It has been translated into English by Dr. Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the. Folio from the (1761–1763), Persian translation of the Mahabharata, commissioned by Mughal emperor. The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour and robes.
A translation of Mahabharata, titled, was produced at Akbar's orders, by and in the 18th century. The first complete English translation was the prose version by, published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. Dutt ( Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in the and is available online. Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the Critical Edition, is in progress, published by Press. It was initiated by (books 1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by D.
Gitomer of (book 6), J. Fitzgerald of Brown University (books 11–13) and of the University of Chicago (books 14–18). An early poetry translation by and published in 1898 condenses the main themes of the Mahābhārata into English verse.
A later poetic 'transcreation' (author's own description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet, is complete, and in 2005 began being published by, Calcutta. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in the Critical Edition). The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2010. Sixteen of the eighteen volumes are now available. A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the, published by Press. The translation is based not on the Critical Edition but on the version known to the commentator. Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.
Indian economist has also begun an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Was published in March 2010. Many condensed versions, abridgements and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published in English, including works by, Bharadvaja Sarma,. Derivative literature, the 2nd- or 3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in the Marabharata, (Broken Thigh), about the fight between and, while (The Middle One) set around Bhima and his son,. The first important play of 20th century was ( The Blind Epoch), by, which came in 1955, found in Mahabharat, both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and discontent. Starting with it was staged by numerous directors.
's Marathi novel, Yayati (1960) and 's debut play Yayati (1961) are based on the story of King found in the Mahabharat. Bengali writer and playwright, wrote three plays set in Mahabharat, Anamni Angana, Pratham Partha and Kalsandhya. Wrote an winning novel entitled from 's perspective in 1984.
Later, wrote a similar novel entitled in 2008. Gujarati poet has written long narrative poetry based on character., a Singapore-based Indian author has written several novels which are modern-day retellings of the epic, most notably the Aryavarta Chronicles Series.
Wrote a based on by personalizing and taking alone in the scene. Published a 1,260 page. In film and television. Krishna as portrayed in from which is based largely on stories of Mahabharata In, several film versions of the epic have been made, dating back to 1920. In film (1977) directed by and starring depicts as the lead character.
The Mahābhārata was also reinterpreted by in. Directed 2010 film was partially inspired by the Mahabharata. A holds the record for India's most expensive animated film. In the late 1980s, the, directed by Ravi Chopra, was televised on India's national television. The same year as Mahabharat was being shown on Doordarshan, that same company's other television show, also directed by Shyam Benegal, showed a 2-episode abbreviation of the Mahabharata, drawing from various interpretations of the work, be they sung, danced, or staged. In the, a well-known presentation of the epic is 's nine-hour play, which premiered in in 1985, and its five-hour movie version (1989).
In the late 2013 was televised on STAR Plus. It was produced by Swastik Productions Pvt. Uncompleted projects on the Mahābhārata include a ones by, and a theaterical adaptation planned. Jain version.
Key to Symbols. Male: blue border. Female: red border.: green box.: yellow box Notes. a: was a king of the Kuru dynasty or kingdom, and was some generations removed from any ancestor called. His marriage to preceded his marriage to.
b: and were fathered by in the tradition after 's death. Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura were the sons of Vyasa with Ambika, Ambalika and a maid servant respectively. c: was born to through her invocation of, before her marriage to.
d:, and were acknowledged sons of but were begotten by the invocation by and of various deities. They all married (not shown in tree). e: and his siblings were born at the same time, and they were of the same generation as their cousins.
f: Although the succession after the Pandavas was through the descendants of Arjuna and Subhadra, it was Yudhishthira and Draupadi who occupied the throne of Hastinapura after the great battle. The birth order of siblings is correctly shown in the family tree (from left to right), except for and whose birth order is not described, and Vichitravirya and Chitrangada who were born after them.
The fact that and are sisters is not shown in the family tree. The birth of Duryodhana took place after the birth of Karna, Yudhishthira and Bhima, but before the birth of the remaining Pandava brothers. Some siblings of the characters shown here have been left out for clarity; these include, the eldest brother of Vichitravirya., half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu. Cultural influence In the, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different and philosophies, with examples and analogies.
This has led to the Gita often being described as a concise guide to and a practical, self-contained guide to life. In more modern times, and many others used the text to help inspire the. Various modern day television shows and novels have taken inspiration from the Mahabharata. Editions. The Mahabharata: Complete and Unabridged (set of 10 volumes) by Bibek Debroy, Penguin Books India. The Mahābhārata of Vyasa (18 volumes), transcreated from Sanskrit by, Writers Workshop. See also.
References.